It's projects Xtra .com!

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1      Background of the Study

There is increasing recognition in the social science literature that infertility is a devastating problem for women, particularly in the high-fertility context of sub-Saharan Africa. Regardless of the medical causes of infertility, women in most African societies suffer grief, social stigma, ostracism and often serious economic deprivation. A previous article demonstrated that these hardships vary across different cultural contexts, given that institutional settings influence the meanings and consequences of the condition. In that paper the focus was on these settings in two southern Nigerian communities and a number of particularly salient differences between the two communities in their impact on community responses to infertile women were documented. The communities are Amakiri (pseudonym), an Ijo community in Delta State, and Lopon (pseudonym), a Yakurr community in Cross River State. The major difference between these localities is that descent in Amakiri is patrilineal, traced through the father’s side, whereas in Lopon it is double unilineal, traced through both parents’ sides. In addition, high levels of infertility are historically documented in Lopon , whereas infertility levels in Amakiri are relatively low . The findings indicated that based on these differences, responses to infertility were considerably more negative in Amakiri than in Lopon. In the current paper, the focus is first on the experiences of individual women with infertility, derived from in-depth life history interviews in each community, and second, using survey data, these life experiences are compared with those of their fertile counterparts. Specifically, how the differences in the lineage structure in the two communities’ impact on the childless and sub fertile women’s experiences in their marital and interpersonal relations and socioeconomic activities are documented. In this way, the study distinguishes between women who are childless and those with subfertility and compares them with high-fertility women. It is hypothesized that the experiences of women who are childless or have subfertility in Lopon will be less negative than of those in Amakiri, given the differences in the institutional settings and the historically evolved symbolic meaning of the infertile condition.

Infertility is perceived as a problem across virtually all cultures and societies and affects an estimated 10-15% of couples of reproductive age (Bovine, Bunting, Collins & Negron, 2007). It has been viewed differently in different cultures. The population in the developed and developing countries hold different attitudes regarding infertility. In developing countries, infertility may be linked to an act of God, punishment for sins of the past, prolonged use of contraceptives, and the result of witchcraft which is causing childlessness, whereas people in developed countries view infertility as caused by biological and other related factors like excessive alcoholism, lack of cooperation between the man and the woman during sexual intercourse (Bovine, Bunting, Collins & Negron, 2007). No matter the culture, infertility is viewed as an enormous problem by couples everywhere.

According to Dhont, Van der Wijgert, Coene, Gasarabwe & Temmerman, (2010) children are seen as blessings of marriage and in some societies of the world; it is even believed that they are symbols of God's approval and blessings on marriages. Under normal circumstances, it is the choice of each individual and couple, within their own sense of conscience, to determine if they intend pregnancy and if so, the size of their family unit and the timing of when to have a child or children.  However, in many African cultures, married couples who are unable to bear children shortly a few years after marriage are faced with all forms of unfriendly pressure from the family and social groups which could lead to unnecessary frustration, resentment and depression. 

Apart from the rare cases when couples deliberately decide not to have children, inability to bear children has been the cause of many failed marriages and even destroyed many homes. It affects the self-esteem of a man, dampens his sense of control and also throws a woman into total confusion, frustration and anxiety. It is therefore an issue that should not be taken lightly by both the man and the woman. Many women believe that without children, life is without hope (Marida & Ulla, 2008).

World Health Organisation, 1987 as cited in Tabong & Adongo, (2013) defined infertility as failure to conceive after one year of regular unprotected sexual intercourse in the absence of known reproductive pathology. However epidemiological studies have revealed that in a normal population of heterosexually active women who are not using birth control methods, 25% will become pregnant in the first month, 63% within six months and 80% within one year. By the end of the second year, 85% to 90% will have conceived (National collaboration centre for women and children heath, 2012). Because some couples who are not infertile may not be able to conceive within the first year of unprotected sex, World Health Organization (WHO) therefore recommends the epidemiological definition of infertility, which is the inability to conceive within two years of exposure to pregnancy (WHO, 1987 in Tabong & Adongo, 2013).Individuals who are thought to be infertile are generally relegated to an inferior status, and stigmatized with many labels. As a result, childlessness has varied consequences through its effects in the society and on life style of individuals. Though in some cases, the childless life style enhances life satisfaction for some individuals, yet it is diminishing for others for whom parenthood is a personal goal (Aysel & Gul, 2015).

Graham (2015) noted that, parenthood is one of the major transitions in adult life for both men and women. The stress of the non fulfilment of a wish for a child has been associated with emotional related problems, sexual dysfunction and social isolation. Couples passing through the stress of infertility challenges experience stigma, sense of loss, and diminished self esteem in the society. Among couples with infertility challenges in general, women show higher levels of distress than their men partners. They experience sense of loss of identity and have pronounced feelings of incompleteness and incompetence. However, infertility is a significant medical problem that affects many couples and has multiple aspects including physical, emotional, financial, social and psychological effects (Omu & Omu, 2010). Experience of fertility challenges is a stressful condition itself, becoming particularly traumatic with previous pregnancies ending up in abortions, stillbirths and neonatal/infant deaths (Rouchou & Brittany, 2013). Receiving a diagnosis of infertility is a significant life crisis (Alesi, 2007). Feeling of grief and loss are very common as couples come to terms with the fact that they are not able to conceive. Infertility may result in a decrease in quality of life and an increase in marital discord and sexual dysfunction (Sameer, Trupti & Surendranths, 2010).

For many couples, infertility is undeniably a major life crisis and psychologically stressful (Holstein, Christensen & Boivin, 2011a). It has been reported to cause depression, pain and the promise of often unfulfilled dreams in women. It is a lonely place for individuals and couples because “infertility is often a silent and solitary crucible, since it is not visible, life threatening or disfiguring” (Mogobe, 2010). Studies have found infertile women to be more neurotic, dependent and anxious than fertile women, experiencing conflict over their femininity and fear associated with reproduction. Others studies have similarly come to negative conclusions regarding the relationship between psychological factors and infertility (Noble, 2009).

Worldwide, more than 70 million couples suffer from infertility. In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence differs widely from 9% in the Gambia, 21.2% in north-western Ethiopia, 11.8% among women and 15.8% among men in Ghana and between 20 and 30% in Nigeria (National collaboration centre for women and children health, 2012). In African culture, the meaning of marriage is only fulfilled if the woman conceives and bears children as they are seen as sources of power and pride as well as assurance of family continuity. Anthropological and sociological studies bear testimony to the considerable suffering associated with involuntary childlessness due to negative psychosocial consequences such as marital instability, abuse and stigmatization (Dyer, Abraham, Hoffman & Van der Spy, 2012).

In Nigeria, the prevalence of infertility has been studied in demographic surveys, epidemiological surveys and through clinical observation (Okonofua, 2010). The Nigeria demographic and health survey for the period 2006-2010 reported a prevalence rate of primary infertility of 22.7% in 15-49years old women and 7.1% in 25-49years old (Okonofua, 2010).  The inability to have children affects both men and women across the globe and lead to distress and depression as well as discrimination and ostracism (Cui, 2010). In order to deal with the stress of infertility, couples adopt various coping strategies.